Glossary of Ayurvedic Herbs

 

 

Modern Research on Ginger

By Dr. Robert Keith Wallace

Excerpts from Maharishi Ayurveda and Vedic Technology: Creating Ideal Health for the Individual and World,

Revised and Updated from The Physiology of Consciousness: Part 2 by Robert Keith Wallace, PhD, Dharma Publications, 2016 available at Amazon Click Here

 

 

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a member of a plant family that includes cardamom and turmeric. For thousands of years ginger has been used as both a spice and an herbal medicine. It was a highly sought commodity exported from India to the Roman Empire, and then controlled by Arab merchants for centuries. The popular “Gingerbread Man” cookie shape is said to be the inspiration of Queen Elizabeth I of England.

The part of the ginger plant that is used in both cooking and herbal medicine is the root or rhizome—the horizontal stem from which the roots grow. The primary producer of ginger is still India, although it is also cultivated in East Africa, the Caribbean, and throughout the tropics.

In Ayurveda, ginger root is referred to as either Shunthi Nagara (dry), or Ardaka (fresh). It pacifies both Kapha and Vata, but if taken in excess, can aggravate Pitta. Its taste or rasa is pungent when fresh, and sweet when dry. It energetic action is heating and it is useful in stimulating agni, the digestive power. Traditional use includes the promotion of a healthy appetite and digestion, calming upset stomachs, reducing gas, helping with menstrual cramps, nausea, colic, vomiting, indigestion, colds, cough, joint pain and arthritis, asthma, congestive conditions, and as an aphrodisiac.

 

Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, and Analgesic Effects of Ginger

PubMed lists over 1700 research papers on ginger, revealing important properties which include antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiemetic, antidiabetic, and anticancer. For example, ginger has recently been shown to have a range of antimicrobial effects (1-3), and in certain cases fresh ginger is found to be more effective than the dry ginger (4). A large number of studies have been conducted on the antioxidant properties of ginger. The bioactive molecules of ginger include the gingerols, and when dried or cooked, gingerol analogues such as zingerone and shogaol. Studies have shown that 6-shogaol exhibits the most potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, followed by 10-gingerol (5). Of all the spices, ginger is one of the strongest antioxidants (6,7).

The antioxidant properties of ginger and it principle components are thought to be responsible for its many protective effects on different organ system in the body (8-15). For example, 6-gingerol, an active ingredient of ginger, protects acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in mice(16). Several studies have shown that ginger suppresses lipid peroxidation and protects the levels of reduced glutathione (17,18). Further studies show that ginger prevents degeneration of the kidney cells and reduces the severity of kidney damage caused by certain antibiotics (19). In a study in Egypt published in 2008 researcher found a valuable effect of ginger extract against acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis possibly by its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (20). Other studies suggests that ginger can reduce cell death and restore motor function in animal spinal cord injury and can have a neuroprotective function from chemical induced neurotoxicity (21, 22). Further studies have demonstrated the effects of ginger and its components on protection from radiation (23-25).

A number of studies have documented the anti-inflammatory effects of ginger and its components (26-33). Ginger has been studied as a possible therapeutic agent for osteoarthritis. In one of the first studies conducted in India and published in 1992, relief from both pain and swelling was reported in patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and general muscular discomfort, when using powdered ginger as a dietary supplement from 3 months to 2 years (34). One of the few studies in which positive results were not found was conducted in Copenhagen, Demark, and published in 2000, in which ginger extract was compared to placebo and Ibuprofen in patients with osteoarthritis of the hip or knee in a controlled, double blind, cross-over study. No significant difference between the placebo and the ginger extract were demonstrated although explorative tests of differences in the first treatment period showed a better effect of both Ibuprofen and ginger extract than placebo (35).

In a study conducted in Florida and published in 2001, patients with osteoarthritis of the knee with moderate-to-severe pain were enrolled in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 6-week study. Among 247 evaluable patients, the percentage of responders experiencing a reduction in knee pain on standing was superior in the ginger extract group compared with the control group (36). In a recent randomized controlled trial conducted in Thailand, patients with osteoarthritis of the knee were given either plygersic gel, which contains a combination of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and plai (Zingiber cassumunar), or diclofenac gel. Both groups had significantly improvement in knee joint pain, symptoms, daily activities, sports activities, and quality of life, as measured by the Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score. There were no differences in the results between the Plygersic and diclofenac gel groups (37).

Several studies were conducted at Georgia College and State University on muscle pain. In the first study, consumption of 2 g of ginger before 30 minutes of cycling exercise had no effect on quadriceps muscle pain, the rate of perceived exertion, work rate, heart rate, or oxygen uptake These results were consistent with related findings showing that ingesting a large dose of aspirin does not acutely alter quadriceps muscle pain during cycling, and this suggests that prostaglandins do not play a large role in this type of exercise-induced skeletal-muscle pain (38).  In a second study published in 2010, the researchers conducted a double-blind, placebo controlled, randomized experiments with 34 and 40 volunteers using of 2 g of ginger, either raw or heated, for 11 days. The results showed moderate-to-large reductions in muscle pain in exercise-induced muscle injury (39). Results of a double-blind comparative clinical trial indicated that ginger (250-mg capsules) was as effective as the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in relieving pain in women with primary dysmenorrhea (40).

 

Anti-nausea Effects of Ginger

Throughout history ginger has been used to relieve nausea and vomiting. The antiemetic properties of ginger have been studied extensively, especially in connection with both pregnancy and chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (41-44). In a study published in the medical journal Lancet in 1982, ginger was reported to be superior to both dimenhydrinate (Dramamine) and to a placebo against motion sickness, using a rotating chair to evoke the symptoms (45). A follow-up study conducted in Demark on naval cadets in the open sea, indicated that 1g of ginger every four hours reduced the tendency to vomiting and cold sweating significantly better than a placebo. There was also a marked reduction in nausea and vertigo but it was not statistically significant (46). A study published in 2002 and conducted in Taiwan, found that ginger was effective in the prevention and treatment of motion sickness as indicated by a reduction in nausea, tachygastric activity, and vasopressin release (47). In a study at the Louisiana State University Medical Center, Shreveport, the researchers found that powdered ginger provided no protection against motion sickness using a system of measurement which was based on a combination of five cardinal symptoms including nausea, pallor, cold sweats, increased salivation, and drowsiness (48). It has been suggested that the discrepancy between the results of this study and the others may be due to the fact that other studies relied primarily on the correlation between motion sickness and nausea and vomiting, rather than the other symptoms. A variety of mechanisms have been postulated for the actions of ginger and its components on nausea, some of them based on the fact that ginger has been demonstrated to affect serotonin receptors (49-51).

Another important area that has been studied extensively is the effect of ginger on nausea and vomiting during pregnancy (52-57).  A research study conducted in Thailand, and reported in 2001, looked at 70 pregnant women with morning sickness. They found that after using just 1 gram of dry ginger per day for only four days, 87.5% of the ginger-takers had significant improvement in nausea symptoms compared to the placebo group (58). In another study in Iran and published in 2008, woman who received ginger (250-mg capsules) appeared to experience less vomiting and nausea compared to those receiving placebo; the ginger group also had relief from primary dysmenorrhea symptoms (59).  A further study also conducted in Iran showed that ginger was more effective than vitamin B6 for relieving the severity of nausea, and was equally effective for decreasing the number of vomiting episodes in early pregnancy (60). In the latest review articles, the authors suggest that the best available evidence suggests that ginger is a safe and effective treatment for nausea and vomiting during pregnancy. They point out, however, that there are still questions regarding the maximum safe dosage of ginger, appropriate duration of treatment, consequences of over-dosage, and potential drug-herb interactions (61, 62).

Research results on the effects of ginger on chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting has been mixed (63,64). A few studies found conflicting results, indicating that ginger had no effect on chemotherapy induced vomiting (65, 66).  Most other studies have reported that there was a decrease in chemotherapy induced vomiting with the use of ginger powder (67,68). A randomized double-blind and placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted on 80 women in Iran with breast cancer undergoing chemotherapy, and included anticipatory as well as delayed chemotherapy induced vomiting. The ginger group fared significantly better during the anticipatory acute and delayed phases (69). In a second randomized clinical trial in Iran of 100 women with advanced breast cancer, ginger was added to a standard antiemetic therapy and it reduced the prevalence of nausea 6 to 24 hours postchemotherapy (70). Finally, a study in Rochester Medical Center, New York, of 576 patients in a randomly assigned clinical trial showed that ginger supplementation at a daily dose of 0.5 g-1.0 g significantly aids in reduction of the severity of acute chemotherapy-induced nausea in adult cancer patients (71).

Two other areas of interest are the effects of ginger on postoperative vomiting and on preventing nausea associated with gynecological laparoscopy. The results are mostly positive (72-77) but there are some contradictory findings (79,80). As a whole, the majority of studies suggest that ginger is effective in alleviating nausea and vomiting associated with a number of different conditions. It was suggested at one time by European authorities that ginger should be avoided during pregnancy on theoretical grounds, but this has been disputed by others based on the fact that ginger has been used for many thousands of years by pregnant woman with no reported problems.

 

Diabetic and Cardiovascular Effects of Ginger

In one recent review, the researcher concluded that ginger shows effective glycaemic control properties in diabetes mellitus (81). There are mixed findings on the ability of ginger to lower lipid levels, although it appears to have other beneficial effects for cardiovascular disease. In an early study in Israel on the development of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice, ginger was shown to significantly lowered blood glucose, serum total cholesterol, LDL, VLDL, and triglycerides, and raised HDL (82). Several studies conducted in India on rabbits showed that ginger acted as an antihyperlipidaemic agent and, although it did not lower blood lipids, it significantly lowered (50%) the development of atheroma in the aorta and coronary arteries of rabbits that were fed cholesterol, as well as decreasing lipid peroxidation and enhancement of fibrinolytic activity (83, 84). Further studies showed the protective effects of ginger on the development of metabolic syndrome in an animal model (85). Several studies have shown its ability to affect insulin secretion, and to increase insulin sensitivity (86-89). This, combined with other data which shows the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-platelet, hypotensive, and hypolipidemic effects, suggests that ginger could be used in the treatment of diabetes and cardiovascular disease (90).

Attempts have also been made to determine the possible mechanism of how ginger and its components may prevent atherosclerosis or other lipid-binding diseases. One study found that ginger could have a synergetic effect on antiplatelet aggregation medication in normal human volunteers and hypertensive patients (91). A recent study investigated the activity of (S)-[6]-gingerol to inhibit transforming growth factor. This factor stimulates proteoglycan synthesis, leading to increased binding of low-density lipoproteins, which is the initiating step in atherosclerosis (92). There have also been investigations into the anti-clotting effects of ginger and its possible interaction with warfarin (93-95). At least one study indicates that ginger at recommended doses does not significantly affect clotting status or the pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects (95). Another study on human subjects conducted in Iran and published in 2008, conducted a double blind controlled clinical trial in which patients with hyperlipidemia were randomly divided the into 2 groups, a treatment group (receiving ginger capsules 3 g/day in 3 divided doses) and a placebo group (lactose capsule 3 g/day in 3 divided doses) for 45 days. Triglyceride, cholesterol, and LDL levels were substantially decreased in the ginger group compared to placebo group. The high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and level of high density lipoprotein level in the ginger group increased significantly as compared to the placebo (96).

 

The Effects of Ginger on Asthma and Migraine

In a study done in France the researchers found that [6]-gingerol, a major constituent of ginger, was sufficient to suppress eosinophilia. This suggested that ginger could suppress Th2-mediated immune responses and might thus provide a possible therapeutic application in allergic asthma (97). A study in Canada shown that ginger inhibits airway contraction and associated Ca(2+) signalling, possibly via blockade of plasma membrane Ca(2+) channels, thus reiterating its effectiveness in treating respiratory illnesses (98). A further study on isolated human airway smooth muscles, showed that ginger and its isolated active components, [6]-gingerol, [8]-gingerol, and [6]-shogaol, caused significant and rapid relaxation, and [8]-gingerol attenuated airway hyper-responsiveness, in part by altering [Ca(2+)](i) regulation, suggesting that ginger may have a therapeutic application in airway diseases such as asthma (99).

Several studies have investigated the effects of ginger and other herbs on migraines. In a study done in the US and published in 2005, researchers 29 subject completed a one year study which looked at the effects of a compound known as GelStat Migraine, which consisted of a combination of ginger and feverfew. Two hours after treatment, 48% were pain-free with 34% reporting a headache of only mild severity. 29% reported a recurrence within 24 hours. Side effects were minimal and not serious. The authors concluded that GelStat Migraine was as effective as a first line treatment for migraine when initiated early during the milder headache phase (100). In a second study by the same research group. a double blind placebo controlled study was conducted on 60 patients using a sublingual combination of feverfew and ginger called LIpiGesic M.  Again, positive results were found and it was concluded that this treatment was safe and effective as a first-line abortive treatment for a population of migraineurs who frequently experience mild headache prior to the onset of moderate to severe headache (101). In a study conducted in Iran and published in 2013, a comparison was made between the efficacy of ginger and the drug, Sumatriptan, in a double-blinded randomized clinical trial of 100 patients who had acute migraine without aura. Two hours after using either drug, mean headaches severity decreased significantly. The efficacy of ginger powder and sumatriptan was similar, while the clinical adverse effects of ginger powder were less than sumatriptan (102).

 

Anti-cancer effects and mechanisms of action

The anticancer potential of ginger and its active components is well documented and continues to be an active area of research (103-105). Studies in animal models have shown that ginger and its components inhibit cancer in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract (106,107), colon and lung (108-113), skin (114-119), breast (120, 121), prostate (122-124), leukemia (125), and ovarian (126). The active ingredients of ginger (e.g. [6]-gingerol,[6]-shogaol, [6]-paradol, and zerumbone) exhibits numerous types of antitumorigenic activities and as a result there are many different theories on the mechanism of how ginger might affects cancer, such as: up-regulation of carcinogen detoxifying enzymes, pro-apoptotic activity, and as an inhibitor of metastasis or angiogenesis through the modulation of NF-kappaB pathways (103-138).

A careful analysis made in one study on the effective dose of ginger for anticancer purposes suggests that it is important to consider ginger as a whole food since the beneficial effects of ginger may be due to additive or synergistic effects of other constituent phytochemicals within it (123). The authors cite another researcher who also suggests that the cancer preventive effects of plants are based on the synergistic effects of the compounds within them (139,140). This concept may explain why single phytochemicals have met with limited success, suggesting that they may lose their bioactivity without the other compounds present. In principle, lower dose levels could be used when taken as a whole food, as opposed to taking larger doses of active ingredients where the effects in humans are not well understood.

 

 

 

 

References

 

1. Valera MC, Maekawa LE, de Oliveira LD, Jorge AO, Shygei É, Carvalho CA. In vitro antimicrobial activity of auxiliary chemical substances and natural extracts on Candida albicans and Enterococcus faecalis in root canals. J Appl Oral Sci. 2013 Mar-Apr;21(2):118-23.
2. Kubra IR, Murthy PS, Rao LJ. In vitro antifungal activity of dehydrozingerone and its fungitoxic properties.J Food Sci. 2013 Jan;78(1):M64-9
3. Chang JS, Wang KC, Yeh CF, Shieh DE, Chiang LC.Fresh ginger (Zingiber officinale) has anti-viral activity against human respiratory syncytial virus in human respiratory tract cell lines. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013 Jan 9;145(1):146-51.
4. Gull I, Saeed M, Shaukat H, Aslam SM, Samra ZQ, Athar AM.Inhibitory effect of Allium sativum and Zingiber officinale extracts on clinically important drug resistant pathogenic bacteria. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2012 Apr 27;11:8.
5. Dugasani S, Pichika MR, Nadarajah VD, Balijepalli MK, Tandra S, Korlakunta JN. Comparative antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of [6]-gingerol, [8]-gingerol, [10]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;127:515–20
6. Halvorsen B. L, editor. et al. A systematic screening of total antioxidants in dietary plants. J Nutr. 2002;132(3):461–71.
7. Ramkissoon JS, Mahomoodally MF, Ahmed N, Subratty AH. Relationship between total phenolic content, antioxidant potential, and antiglycation abilities of common culinary herbs and spices. J Med Food. 2012 Dec;15(12):1116-23
8. Uz E, Karatas O. F, Mete E, Bayrak R, Bayrak O, Atmaca A. F, Atis O, Yildirim M. E, Akcay A. The effect of dietary ginger (Zingiber officinals Rosc.) on renal ischemia/reperfusion injury in rat kidneys. Ren Fail. 2009;31(4):251–60.
9. Kabuto H, Nishizawa M, Tada M, Higashio C, Shishibori T, Kohno M. Zingerone [4-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-butanone] sprevents 6-hydroxydopamine-induced dopamine depression in mouse striatum and increases superoxide scavenging activity in serum. Neurochem Res. 2005;30:325–32. [PubMed: 16018576]
10. Mallikarjuna K, Sahitya Chetan P, Sathyavelu Reddy K, Rajendra W. Ethanol toxicity: Rehabilitation of hepatic antioxidant defense system with dietary ginger. Fitoterapia. 2008;79:174–8. [PubMed: 18182172]
11. Mahmoud MF, Diaai AA, Ahmed F. Evaluation of the efficacy of ginger, Arabic gum, and Boswellia in acute and chronic renal failure. Ren Fail. 2012;34:73–82. [PubMed: 22017619]
12. Ajith TA, Nivitha V, Usha S. Zingiber officinale Roscoe alone and in combination with alpha-tocopherol protect the kidney against cisplatin-induced acute renal failure. Food Chem Toxicol
13. Krim M, Messaadia A, Maidi I, Aouacheri O, Saka S. Protective effect of ginger against toxicity induced by chromate in rats. Ann Biol Clin (Paris). 2013 Mar-Apr;71(2):165-73. doi: 10.1684/abc.2013.0806.
14. Waggas AM. Neuroprotective evaluation of extract of ginger (Zingiber officinale) root in monosodium glutamate-induced toxicity in different brain areas male albino rats. Pak J Biol Sci. 2009;12(3):201–212.).
15. Sabina EP, Pragasam SJ, Kumar S, Rasool M.6-gingerol, an active ingredient of ginger, protects acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in mice. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Xue Bao. 2011 Nov;9(11):1264-9
16. Ahmed R. S, Suke S. G, Seth V, Chakraborti A, Tripathi A. K, Banerjee B. D. Protective effects of dietary ginger (Zingiber officinales Rosc.) on lindane-induced oxidative stress in rats. Phytother Res. 2008;22(7):902–6.
17.  El-Sharaky A. S, Newairy A. A, Kamel M. A, Eweda S. M. Protective effect of ginger extract against bromobenzene-induced hepatotoxicity in male rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 2009;47(7):1584–90.
18. Nasri H, Nematbakhsh M, Ghobadi S, Ansari R, Shahinfard N, Rafieian-Kopaei M. Preventive and curative effects of ginger extract against histopathologic changes of gentamicin-induced tubular toxicity in rats. Int J Prev Med. 2013 Mar;4(3):316-21.
19. Ajith TA, Aswathy MS, Hema U. Protective effect of Zingiber officinale roscoe against anticancer drug doxorubicin-induced acute nephrotoxicity. Food Chem Toxicol. 2008 Sep;46(9):3178-81. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2008.07.004. Epub 2008 Jul 17.
20. El-Abhar H. S, Hammad L. N, Gawad H. S. Modulating effect of ginger extract on rats with ulcerative colitis. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;118(3):367–72.
21. Kyung KS, Gon JH, Geun KY, Sup JJ, Suk WJ, Ho KJ. 6-Shogaol, a natural product, reduces cell death and restores motor function in rat spinal cord injury. Eur J Neurosci. 2006;24(4):1042–1052.).
22. Mehdizadeh M, Dabaghian F, Nejhadi A, Fallah-Huseini H, Choopani S, Shekarriz N, Molavi N, Basirat A, Mohammadzadeh Kazorgah F, Samzadeh-Kermani A, Soleimani Asl S. Zingiber Officinale Alters 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-Induced Neurotoxicity in Rat Brain. Cell J. 2012 Fall;14(3):177-84. Epub 2012 Dec 12.
23. Jagetia G, Baliga M, Venkatesh P. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.), a dietary supplement, protects mice against radiation-induced lethality: Mechanism of action. Cancer Biother Radiopharm. 2004;19(4):422–35.
24. Jagetia G. C, Baliga M. S, Venkatesh P, Ulloor J. N. Influence of ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) on survival, glutathione and lipid peroxidation in mice after whole-body exposure to gamma radiation. Radiat Res. 2003;160(5):584–92.
25. Kim J. K, Kim Y, Na K. M, Surh Y. J, Kim T. Y. [6]-gingerol prevents UVB-induced ROS production and COX-2 expression in vitro and in vivo. Free Radic Res. 2007;41(5):603–14.
26. Li F, Nitteranon V, Tang X, Liang J, Zhang G, Parkin KL, Hu Q. In vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of 1-dehydro-[6]-gingerdione, 6-shogaol, 6-dehydroshogaol and hexahydrocurcumin.Food Chem. 2012 Nov 15;135(2):332-7. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.04.145. Epub 2012 May 11.
27. Ha SK, Moon E, Ju MS, Kim DH, Ryu JH, Oh MS, Kim SY. 6-Shogaol, a ginger product, modulates neuroinflammation: a new approach to neuroprotection. Neuropharmacology. 2012 Aug;63(2):211-23.
28. Tjendraputra E, Tran VH, Liu-Brennan D, Roufogalis BD, Duke CC. Effect of ginger constituents and synthetic analogues on cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme in intact cells. Bioorganic Chem. 2001;29:156–63.
29. Jung HW, Yoon CH, Park KM, Han HS, Park YK. Hexane fraction of Zingiberis Rhizoma Crudus extract inhibits the production of nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines in LPS-stimulated BV2 microglial cells via the NF kappaB pathway. Food Chem Toxicol. 2009;47:1190–7. [PubMed: 19233241]
30. Chen BH, Wu PY, Chen KM, Fu TF, Wang HM, Chen CY. Antiallergic potential on RBL-2H3 cells of some phenolic constituents of Zingiber officinale (Ginger) J Nat Prod. 2009;72:950–3. [PubMed: 19271742] 31.
31. Lantz RC, Chen GJ, Sarihan M, Sólyom AM, Jolad SD, Timmermann BN. The effect of extracts from ginger rhizome on inflammatory mediator production. Phytomedicine. 2007;14:123–8. [PubMed: 16709450]
32. Grzanna R, Lindmark L, Frondoza CG. Ginger: An herbal medicinal product with broad anti-inflammatory actions. J Med Food. 2005;8:125–32. [PubMed: 16117603]
33. Minghetti P, Sosa S, Cilurzo F, editors. et al. Evaluation of the topical anti-inflammatory activity of ginger dry extracts from solutions and plasters. Planta Med. 2007;73(15):1525–30.
34. Srivastava K. C, Mustafa T. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in rheumatismand musculoskeletal disorders. Med Hypotheses. 1992;39(4):342–8.
35. Bliddal H, Rosetzsky A, Schlichting P, editors. et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study of ginger extracts and ibuprofen in osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2000;8(1):9–12.
36. Altman RD, Marcussen KC. Effects of a ginger extract on knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2001 Nov;44(11):2531-8.
37. Niempoog S, Siriarchavatana P, Kajsongkram T.J The efficacy of Plygersic gel for use in the treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee. Med Assoc Thai. 2012 Oct;95 Suppl 10:S113-9.
38. Black C. D, O’Connor P. J. Acute effects of dietary ginger on quadriceps muscle pain during moderate-intensity cycling exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2008;18(6):653–64.
39. Black CD, Herring MP, Hurley DJ, O’Connor PJ. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) reduces muscle pain caused by eccentric exercise. J Pain. 2010;11:894–903.
40. Ozgoli G, Goli M, Moattar F. Comparison of effects of ginger, mefenamic acid, and ibuprofen on pain in women with primary dysmenorrhea. J Altern Complement Med. 2009;15:129–32.
41. Palatty PL, Haniadka R, Valder B, Arora R, Baliga MS. Ginger in the prevention of nausea and vomiting: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2013;53(7):659-69. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2011.553751.
42. Marx WM, Teleni L, McCarthy AL, Vitetta L, McKavanagh D, Thomson D, Isenring E. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) and chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a systematic literature review. Nutr Rev. 2013 Apr;71(4):245-54.
43. Navari RM. Management of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting : focus on newer agents and new uses for older agents. Drugs. 2013 Mar;73(3):249-62. doi: 10.1007/s40265-013-0019-1. Review.
44. Haniadka R, Rajeev AG, Palatty PL, Arora R, Baliga MS. Zingiber officinale (ginger) as an anti-emetic in cancer chemotherapy: a review. J Altern Complement Med. 2012 May;18(5):440-4.
45. Mowrey D. B, Clayson D. E. Motion sickness, ginger, and psychophysics. Lancet. 1982;1(8273):655–7.
46. Grontved A, Brask T, Kambskard J, Hentzer E. Ginger root against seasickness: A controlled trial on the open sea. Acta Otolaryngol. 1988;105(1-2):45–9.
47. Lien HC, Sun WM, Chen YH, Kim H, Hasler W, Owyang C. Effects of ginger on motion sickness and gastric slow-wave dysrhythmias induced by circular vection. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2003 Mar;284(3):G481-9.
48. Stewart J. J, Wood M. J, Wood C. D, Mims M. E. Effects of ginger on motion sickness susceptibility and gastric function. Pharmacology. 1991;42(2):111–20.
49. Abdel-Aziz H, Windeck T, Ploch M, Verspohl EJ.Mode of action of gingerols and shogaols on 5-HT3 receptors: binding studies, cation uptake by the receptor channel and contraction of isolated guinea-pig ileum. Eur J Pharmacol. 2006 Jan 13;530(1-2):136-43. Epub 2005 Dec 20.
50. Nievergelt A. Huonker P. Schoop R. Altmann KH. Gertsch J. Identification of serotonin 5-HT1A receptor partial agonists in ginger. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry. 18(9):3345-51, 2010 May 01
51. Walstab J, Krüger D, Stark T, Hofmann T, Demir IE, Ceyhan GO, Feistel B, Schemann M, Niesler B. Ginger and its pungent constituents non-competitively inhibit activation of human recombinant and native 5-HT3 receptors of enteric neurons. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2013 May;25(5):439-47, e302.
52. Aikins Murphy P. Alternative therapies for nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1998;91(1):149–55.
53. Boone S. A, Shields K. M. Treating pregnancy-related nausea and vomiting with ginger. Ann Pharmacother. 2005;39(10):1710–3.
54. Borrelli F, Capasso R, Aviello G, Pittler M. H, Izzo A. A. Effectiveness and safety of ginger in the treatment of pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;105(4):849–56.
55. White B. Ginger: An Overview. Am Fam Physician. 2007 Jun 1;75(11):1689-1691.
56. Mohammadbeigi R, Shahgeibi S, Soufizadeh N, Rezaiie M, Farhadifar F. Comparing the effects of ginger and metoclopramide on the treatment of pregnancy nausea.Pak J Biol Sci. 2011 Aug 15;14(16):817-20.
57. Ding M, Leach M, Bradley H. The effectiveness and safety of ginger for pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting: a systematic review. Women Birth. 2013 Mar;26(1):e26-30.
58. Vutyavanich T, Kraisarin T, Ruangsri R. Ginger for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2001 Apr;97(4):577-82.
59. Ozgoli G, Goli M, Simbar M. Effects of ginger capsules on pregnancy, nausea, and vomiting. J Altern Complement Med. 2009;15(3):243–6.
60. Ensiyeh J, Sakineh M. A. Comparing ginger and vitamin B6 for the treatment of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: a randomised controlled trial. Midwifery. 2009;25:649–53.
61. Marx WM, Teleni L, McCarthy AL, Vitetta L, McKavanagh D, Thomson D, Isenring E.Ginger (Zingiber officinale) and chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a systematic literature review.Nutr Rev. 2013 Apr;71(4):245-54. doi: 10.1111/nure.12016. Epub 2013 Mar 13. Review.
62. Palatty PL, Haniadka R, Valder B, Arora R, Baliga MS. Ginger in the prevention of nausea and vomiting: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2013;53(7):659-69.
63. Lee J, Oh H. Ginger as an antiemetic modality for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Oncol Nurs Forum. 2013 Mar;40(2):163-70..
64. Haniadka R, Rajeev AG, Palatty PL, Arora R, Baliga MS. Zingiber officinale (ginger) as an anti-emetic in cancer chemotherapy: a review. J Altern Complement Med. 2012 May;18(5):440-4.
65. Manusirivithaya S, Sripramote M, Tangjitgamol S, Sheanakul C, Leelahakorn S, Thavaramara T, et al. Antiemetic effect of ginger in gynecologic oncology patients receiving cisplatin. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2004;14:1063–9.
66. Zick SM, Ruffin MT, Lee J, Normolle DP, Siden R, Alrawi S, et al. Phase II trial of encapsulated ginger as a treatment for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Support Care Cancer. 2009;17:563–72.
67. Sontakke S, Thawani V, Naik MS. Ginger as an antiemetic in nausea and vomiting induced by chemotherapy: A randomized, cross-over, double blind study. Indian J Pharmacol. 2003;35:32–6.
68. Qian Q. H, Yue W, Wang Y. X, Yang Z. H, Liu Z. T, Chen W. H. Gingerol inhibits cisplatin- induced vomiting by down regulating 5-hydroxytryptamine, dopamine and substance P expression in minks. Arch Pharm Res. 2009;32(4):565–73.
69. Yekta ZP, Ebrahimi SM, Hosseini M, Nasrabadi AN, Sedighi S, Surmaghi MH, Madani H. Ginger as a miracle against chemotherapy-induced vomiting. Iran J Nurs Midwifery Res. 2012 Jul;17(5):325-9.
70. Panahi Y, Saadat A, Sahebkar A, Hashemian F, Taghikhani M, Abolhasani E. Effect of ginger on acute and delayed chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a pilot, randomized, open-label clinical trial. Integr Cancer Ther. 2012 Sep;11(3):204-11.
71. Ryan JL, Heckler CE, Roscoe JA, Dakhil SR, Kirshner J, Flynn PJ, Hickok JT, Morrow GR. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) reduces acute chemotherapy-induced nausea: a URCC CCOP study of 576 patients. Support Care Cancer. 2012 Jul;20(7):1479-89.
72. Phillips S, Ruggier R, Hutchinson S. E. Zingiber officinale (ginger)-an antiemetic for day case surgery. Anaesthesia. 1993;48(8):715–7.
73. Hunt R, Dienemann J, Norton HJ, Hartley W, Hudgens A, Stern T, Divine G. Aromatherapy as Treatment for Postoperative Nausea: A Randomized Trial. Anesth Analg. 2012 Mar 5. [Epub ahead of print]
74. Pongrojpaw D, Chiamchanya C. The efficacy of ginger in prevention of post-operative nausea and vomiting after outpatient gynecological laparoscopy. J Med Assoc Thai. 2003;86(3):244–50.
75. Apariman S, Ratchanon S, Wiriyasirivej B. Effectiveness of ginger for prevention of nausea and vomiting after gynecological laparoscopy. J Med Assoc Thai. 2006;89(12):2003–9.
76. Nanthakomon T, Pongrojpaw D. The efficacy of ginger in prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting after major gynecologic surgery. J Med Assoc Thai. 2006;89 Suppl.4:S130–6.
77. Chaiyakunapruk N, Kitikannakorn N, Nathisuwan S, Leeprakobboon K, Leelasettagool C. The efficacy of ginger for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting: A meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;194(1):95–9.
78. Visalyaputra S, Petchpaisit N, Somcharoen K, Choavaratana R. The efficacy of ginger root in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting after outpatient gynaecological laparoscopy. Anaesthesia. 1998;53(5):506–10.
79. Eberhart L. H, Mayer R, Betz O, editors. et al. Ginger does not prevent postoperative nausea and vomiting after laparoscopic surgery. Anesth Analg. 2003;96(4):995–8.
80. Tavlan A, Tuncer S, Erol A, Reisli R, Aysolmaz G, Otelcioglu S. Prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting after thyroidectomy: combined antiemetic treatment with dexamethasone and ginger versus dexamethasone alone. Clin Drug Investig. 2006;26(4):209-14.
81. Li Y, Tran VH, Duke CC, Roufogalis BD. Preventive and Protective Properties of Zingiber officinale (Ginger) in Diabetes Mellitus, Diabetic Complications, and Associated Lipid and Other Metabolic Disorders: A Brief Review. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2012;2012:5168
82. Fuhrman B, Rosenblat M, Hayek T, Coleman R, Aviram M. Ginger extract consumption reduces plasma cholesterol, inhibits LDL oxidation and attenuates development of atherosclerosis in atherosclerotic, apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. J Nutr. 2000;130:1124–231.
83. Bhandari U, Sharma J. N, Zafar R. The protective action of ethanolic ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract in cholesterol fed rabbits. J Ethnopharmacol. 1998;61(2):167–71.
84. Verma S. K, Singh M, Jain P, Bordia A. Protective effect of ginger, Zingiber officinale Rosc. on experimental atherosclerosis in rabbits. Indian J Exp Biol. 2004;42(7):736–8.
85. Nammi S, Sreemantula S, Roufogalis BD. Protective effects of ethanolic extract of Zingiber officinale rhizome on the development of metabolic syndrome in high-fat diet-fed rats. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2009;104:366–73.
86. Heimes K, Feistel B, Verspohl EJ. Impact of the 5-HT receptor channel system for insulin secretion and interaction of ginger extracts. Eur J Pharmacol. 2009;624:58–65.
87. Islam MS, Choi H. Comparative effects of dietary ginger (Zingiber officinale) and garlic (Allium sativum) investigated in a type 2 diabetes model of rats. J Med Food. 2008;11:152–9.
88. Sekiya K, Ohtani A, Kusano S. Enhancement of insulin sensitivity in adipocytes by ginger. Biofactors. 2004;22:153–6.Goyal RK, Kadnur SV. Beneficial effects of Zingiber officinale on goldthioglucose induced obesity. Fitoterapia. 2006;77:160–3.
89. Goyal RK, Kadnur SV. Beneficial effects of Zingiber officinale on goldthioglucose induced obesity. Fitoterapia. 2006;77:160–3.
90. Nicoll R, Henein M. Y. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): A hot remedy for cardiovascular disease? Int J Cardiol. 2009;131(3):408–9.
91. Young H. Y, Liao J. C, Chang Y. S, Luo Y. L, Lu M. C, Peng W. H. Synergistic effect of ginger and nifedipine on human platelet aggregation: A study in hypertensive patients and normal volunteers. Am J Chin Med. 2006;34(4):545–51.
92. Kamato D, Babaahmadi Rezaei H, Getachew R, Thach L, Guidone D, Osman N, Roufogalis B, Duke CC, Tran VH, Zheng W, Little PJ. (S)-[6]-Gingerol inhibits TGF-β-stimulated biglycan synthesis but not glycosaminoglycan hyperelongation in human vascular smooth muscle cells. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2013 Jul;65(7):1026-36
93. Nurtjahja-Tjendraputra, E.; Ammit, A.J.; Roufogalis, B.D.; Tran, V.H.; Duke, C.C. Effective anti-platelet and COX-1 enzyme inhibitors from pungent constituents of ginger. Thromb. Res. 003, 111, 259–265.
94. Yu-Ren Liao , Yann-Lii Leu , Yu-Yi Chan , Ping-Chung Kuo  and Tian-Shung Wu. Anti-Platelet Aggregation and Vasorelaxing Effects of the Constituents of the Rhizomes of Zingiber officinale. Molecules 2012, 17, 8928-8937; doi:10.3390/molecules17088928
95. Jiang X, Williams K. M, Liauw W. S, Ammit A. J, Roufogalis B. D, Duke C. C, Day R. O, McLachlan A. J. Effect of ginkgo and ginger on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;59(4):425–32.
96. Alizadeh-Navaei R, Roozbeh F, Saravi M, Pouramir M, Jalali F, Moghadamnia A. A. Investigation of the effect of ginger on the lipid levels. A double blind controlled clinical trial. Saudi Med J. 2008;29(9):1280–4.
97. Ahui ML, Champy P, Ramadan A, Pham Van L, Araujo L, Brou André K, Diem S, Damotte D, Kati-Coulibaly S, Offoumou MA, Dy M, Thieblemont N, Herbelin A. Ginger prevents Th2-mediated immune responses in a mouse model of airway inflammation. Int Immunopharmacol. 2008 Dec 10;8(12):1626-32.
98. Ghayur MN, Gilani AH, Janssen LJ. Ginger attenuates acetylcholine-induced contraction and Ca2+ signalling in murine airway smooth muscle cells. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2008 May;86(5):264-71. doi: 10.1139/y08-030.
99. Townsend EA, Siviski ME, Zhang Y, Xu C, Hoonjan B, Emala CW. Effects of ginger and its constituents on airway smooth muscle relaxation and calcium regulation. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2013 Feb;48(2):157-63. doi: 10.1165/rcmb.2012-0231OC. Epub 2012 Oct 11.
100. Cady RK, Schreiber CP, Beach ME, Hart CC. Gelstat Migraine (sublingually administered feverfew and ginger compound) for acute treatment of migraine when administered during the mild pain phase.Cady RK, Schreiber CP, Beach ME, Hart CC. Gelstat Migraine (sublingually administered feverfew and ginger compound) for acute treatment of migraine when administered during the mild pain phase. Med Sci Monit. 2005 Sep;11(9):PI65-9.
101. Cady RK, Goldstein J, Nett R, Mitchell R, Beach ME, Browning R. A double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study of sublingual feverfew and ginger (LipiGesic™ M) in the treatment of migraine. Headache. 2011 Jul-Aug;51(7):1078-86.
     
102. Mehdi M, Farhad G, Alireza ME, Mehran Y. Comparison Between the Efficacy of Ginger and Sumatriptan in the Ablative Treatment of the Common Migraine. Phytother Res. 2013 May 9. doi: 10.1002/ptr.4996. [Epub ahead of print]
103. Mashhadi NS, Ghiasvand R, Askari G, Hariri M, Darvishi L, Mofid MR. Anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects of ginger in health and physical activity: review of current evidence. Int J Prev Med. 2013 Apr;4(Suppl 1):S36-42.
104. Pereira MM, Haniadka R, Chacko PP, Palatty PL, Baliga MS. Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ginger) as an adjuvant in cancer treatment: a review. J BUON. 2011 Jul-Sep;16(3):414-24. Review.
105. Baliga MS, Haniadka R, Pereira MM, D’Souza JJ, Pallaty PL, Bhat HP, Popuri S. Update on the chemopreventive effects of ginger and its phytochemicals. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2011 Jul;51(6):499-523.
106. Ishiguro K, Ando T, Maeda O, Ohmiya N, Niwa Y, Kadomatsu K, Goto H. Ginger ingredients reduce viability of gastric cancer cells via distinct mechanisms. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2007;362:218–223.
107. Yoshimi N, Wang A, Morishita Y, Tanaka T, Sugie S, Kawai K, Yamahara J, Mori H. Modifying effects of fungal and herb metabolites on azoxymethane-induced intestinal carcinogenesis in rats. Jpn J Cancer Res. 1992;83:1273–1278.
108. Bode, Ann; Dong, Zigang, 2003: Ginger is an effective inhibitor of HCT116 human colorectal carcinoma in vivo. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention. 12(11 Part 2): 1324s, Ember
109. Manju V, Nalini N. Chemopreventive efficacy of ginger, a naturally occurring anticarcinogen during the initiation, post-initiation stages of 1,2 dimethylhydrazine-induced colon cancer. Clin Chim Acta. 2005;358:60–67.
110. Jeong CH, Bode AM, Pugliese A, et al. [6]-Gingerol suppresses colon cancer growth by targeting leukotriene A4 hydrolase. Cancer Res. 2009; 69:5584–5591.
111. Kim M, Miyamoto S, Yasui Y, Oyama T, Murakami A, Tanaka T. Zerumbone, a tropical ginger sesquiterpene, inhibits colon and lung carcinogenesis in mice. Int J Cancer. 2009;124:264–71.
112. Brown AC, Shah C, Liu J, Pham JT, Zhang JG, Jadus MR. Ginger’s (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) inhibition of rat colonic adenocarcinoma cells proliferation and angiogenesis in vitro. Phytother Res. 2009;23:640–5.
113. Wang G, Li X, Huang F, Zhao J, Ding H, Cunningham C, Coad JE, Flynn DC, Reed E, Li QQ. Antitumor effect of beta-elemene in non-small-cell lung cancer cells is mediated via induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptotic cell death. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2005;62:881–893.
114. Katiyar SK, Agarwal R, Mukhtar H. Inhibition of tumor promotion in SENCAR mouse skin by ethanol extract of Zingiber officinale rhizome. Cancer Res. 1996;56:1023–1030.
115. Surh YJ, Lee E, Lee JM. Chemoprotective properties of some pungent ingredients present in red pepper and ginger. Mutat Res. 1998;402:259–267.
116. Park KK, Chun KS, Lee JM, Lee SS, Surh YJ. Inhibitory effects of [6]-gingerol, a major pungent principle of ginger, on phorbol ester-induced inflammation, epidermal ornithine decarboxylase activity and skin tumor promotion in ICR mice. Cancer Lett. 1998;129:139–144.
117. Kim SO, Chun KS, Kundu JK, Surh YJ. Inhibitory effects of [6]-gingerol on PMA-induced COX-2 expression and activation of NF-kappaB and p38 MAPK in mouse skin. Biofactors. 2004;21:27–31.
118. Chung WY, Jung YJ, Surh YJ, Lee SS, Park KK. Antioxidative and antitumor promoting effects of [6]-paradol and its homologs. Mutat Res. 2001;496:199–206.
119. Murakami A, Tanaka T, Lee JY, Surh YJ, Kim HW, Kawabata K, Nakamura Y, Jiwajinda S, Ohigashi H. Zerumbone, a sesquiterpene in subtropical ginger, suppresses skin tumor initiation and promotion stages in ICR mice. Int J Cancer. 2004;110:481–490.
120. Nagasawa H, Watanabe K, Inatomi H. Effects of bitter melon (Momordica charantia l.) or ginger rhizome (Zingiber offifinale rosc) on spontaneous mammary tumorigenesis in SHN mice. Am J Chin Med. 2002;30:195–205.
121. Lee HS, Seo EY, Kang NE, et al. [6]-Gingerol inhibits metastasis of MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. J Nutr Biochem. 2008; 19:313–319.
122. Brahmbhatt M, Gundala SR, Asif G, Shamsi SA, Aneja R. Ginger phytochemicals exhibit synergy to inhibit prostate cancer cell proliferation. Nutr Cancer. 2013;65(2):263-72.
123. Karna P, Chagani S, Gundala SR, Rida PC, Asif G, Sharma V, Gupta MV, Aneja R. Benefits of whole ginger extract in prostate cancer. Br J Nutr. 2012 Feb;107(4):473-84.
124. Nonn L, Duong D, Peehl DM. Chemopreventive anti-inflammatory activities of curcumin and other phytochemicals mediated by MAP kinase phosphatase-5 in prostate cells. Carcinogenesis. 2007;28:1188–1196.
125. Lee E, Surh YJ. Induction of apoptosis in HL-60 cells by pungent vanilloids, [6]-gingerol and [6]-paradol. Cancer Lett. 1998;134:163–168.
126. Rhode J, Zick SM, Fogoros S, Wahl H, Huang J, Rhode M, Tan L, Sorenson D, Liu J, Rebecca Ginger induces apoptosis, autophagocytosis and growth inhibition in ovarian cancer cells. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2007 Dec 20;7:44.
127. Nakamura Y, Yoshida C, Murakami A, Ohigashi H, Osawa T, Uchida K. Zerumbone, a tropical ginger sesquiterpene, activates phase II drug metabolizing enzymes. FEBS Lett. 2004;572:245–250
128. Aktan F, Henness S, Tran VH, Duke CC, Roufogalis BD, Ammit AJ. Gingerol metabolite and a synthetic analogue Capsarol inhibit macrophage NF-kappaB-mediated iNOS gene expression and enzyme activity. Planta Med. 2006;72:727–734.
129. Takada Y, Murakami A, Aggarwal BB. Zerumbone abolishes NF-kappaB and IkappaBalpha kinase activation leading to suppression of antiapoptotic and metastatic gene expression, upregulation of apoptosis, and downregulation of invasion. Oncogene. 2005;24:6957–6969.
130. Kim SO, Kundu JK, Shin YK, Park JH, Cho MH, Kim TY, Surh YJ. [6]-Gingerol inhibits COX-2 expression by blocking the activation of p38 MAP kinase and NF-kappaB in phorbol ester-stimulated mouse skin. Oncogene. 2005;24:2558–2567.
131. Kim EC, Min JK, Kim TY, Lee SJ, Yang HO, Han S, Kim YM, Kwon YG. [6]-Gingerol, a pungent ingredient of ginger, inhibits angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2005;335:300–308.
132. Hung JY, Hsu YL, Li CT, Ko YC, Ni WC, Huang MS, et al. [6]-Shogaol, an active constituent of dietary ginger, induces autophagy by inhibiting the AKT/mTOR pathway in human non-small cell lung cancer A549 cells. J Agric Food Chem. 2009;57:9809–16.
133. Gan FF, Ling H, Ang X, Reddy SA, Lee SS, Yang H, Tan SH, Hayes JD, Chui WK, Chew EH. A novel shogaol analog suppresses cancer cell invasion and inflammation, and displays cytoprotective effects through modulation of NF-κB and Nrf2-Keap1 signaling pathways.Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2013 Jul 27. doi:pii: S0041-008X(13)00314-1. 10.1016/j.taap.2013.07.011. [Epub ahead of print]
134. Sung B, Jhurani S, Ahn KS, Mastuo Y, Yi T, Guha S, et al. Zerumbone down-regulates chemokine receptor CXCR4 expression leading to inhibition of CXCL12-induced invasion of breast and pancreatic tumor cells. Cancer Res. 2008;68:8938–44.
135. Sung B, Murakami A, Oyajobi BO, Aggarwal BB. Zerumbone abolishes RANKL-induced NF-kappaB activation, inhibits osteoclastogenesis, and suppresses human breast cancer-induced bone loss in athymic nude mice. Cancer Res. 2009;69:1477–84.
136. Zhu Y, Warin RF, Soroka DN, Chen H, Sang S. Metabolites of ginger component [6]-shogaol remain bioactive in cancer cells and have low toxicity in normal cells: chemical synthesis and biological evaluation. PLoS One. 2013;8(1):e54677.
137. Liu Y, Whelan RJ, Pattnaik BR, Ludwig K, Subudhi E, Rowland H, Claussen N, Zucker N, Uppal S, Kushner DM, Felder M, Patankar MS, Kapur A. Terpenoids from Zingiber officinale (Ginger) induce apoptosis in endometrial cancer cells through the activation of p53. PLoS One. 2012;7(12):e53178.
138. Hsu YL, Chen CY, Lin IP, Tsai EM, Kuo PL, Hou MF. 4-Shogaol, an active constituent of dietary ginger, inhibits metastasis of MDA-MB-231 human breast adenocarcinoma cells by decreasing the repression of NF-κB/Snail on RKIP. J Agric Food Chem. 2012 Jan 25;60(3):852-61.
139. Liu RH. Health benefits of fruit and vegetables are from additive and synergistic combinations of phytochemicals. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78 (Suppl 3):517S–520S.
140. Liu RH. Potential synergy of phytochemicals in cancer prevention: mechanism of action. J Nutr. 2004; 134(Suppl 12):3479S–3485S.Copyright© 2013 Robert Keith Wallace

142. Excerpts from Maharishi Ayurveda and Vedic Technology: Creating Ideal Health for the Individual and World,

     Revised and Updated from The Physiology of Consciousness: Part 2 by Robert Keith Wallace, PhD, Dharma Publications, 2016 available at Amazon Click Here

      

     DISCLAIMER

      

     The sole purpose of these articles, blogs, and glossary is to provide information about the tradition of Ayurveda. This information is not intended for use in the diagnosis, prevention or cure of any disease. If you have any serious, acute or chronic health concern, please consult a trained health professional who can fully assess your needs and address them effectively.